MISJ-International Journal of Medical Research and Allied Sciences  
Online ISSN: 2584-1432  
Available Online at https://ijmraas.misj.net Volume 04|Issue 01 (January to April) |2026 Page: 6-9  
Open Access  
Original Research Paper  
From Farm to Fork: Parasitic Contamination of Raw Vegetables and  
Implications for Food Safety and Sustainable Development  
Authors:  
Ebtesam S Abd- Elrazeq1, Yousif Sulaiman2, Hana Husayn A. Miftah3, Fawzia Takala4, Fawzia Kahbar5,  
Kerlous Samy Hanna6, Nouara Elazirg Elammari7*, Idress Hamad Attitalla8*  
1Medical Laboratories Department Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Omar AlMokhtar, El-Beyda, Libya.  
2Pediatric Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Benghazi, Benghazi, Libya.  
3Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Omar Al Muktar University, El-Beida, Libya.  
4Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Al-Mergeb, Al-Khums, Libya.  
5Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Zawia University, Zawia, Libya.  
6Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Libyan University of Modern Sciences and Technology, Benghazi, Libya.  
7Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Benghazi, Benghazi, Libya.  
8Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Faculty of Health Sciences Formally Medical Technology, Omar Al-Mukhtar  
University, at Box 919, Albayda, Libya.  
*Corresponding Author:  
Idress Hamad Attitalla, Idress.hamad@omu.edu.ly  
Received: 05-March-2026, Revised: 20-March-2026, Accepted: 05-April-2026, Online First: 06-April-2026  
ABSTRACT:  
Background: Raw vegetables are widely regarded as a basic component in healthy foods and are used as vectors in cases  
where intestinal parasites are not eliminated from them properly. The current study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and  
distribution among various taxonomic groups affected by parasites in commonly eaten leafy and non-leafy vegetables from  
markets and grocery stores in relation to food safety and sustainable development objectives. Methods: A cross-sectional  
survey of 126 samples of vegetables (63 leafy, 63 non-leafy) from May through September of the year 2025 was undertaken.  
Adherent material (200–300g) of each sample was rinsed with 500mL of sterile saline, allowed to settle, then centrifuged,  
and analyzed under light microscopy with the use of wet mounts and the flotation concentration methods; iodine staining,  
when applicable. The data were analyzed for differences in contamination rates of the vegetables using the Chi Square test  
of Pearson. Results: Overall, 67/126, 53.2% samples were positive for at least one intestinal parasite. Contamination was  
significantly higher in leafy vegetables than in non-leafy vegetables (55/63, 87.3% vs 12/63, 19.0%; χ2 = 59.0, p < 0.0001).  
Samples from open markets showed higher prevalence compared to those from grocery stores (50/84, 60.0% vs 17/42,  
40.5%; χ2 = 4.67, p = 0.031). Single-taxon detections (n = 67) included Giardia lamblia cysts (25/126; 19.8%), Ascaris  
species ova (20/126; 15.9%), non speciated nematode larvae (12/126; 9.5%), Entamoeba histolytica/dispar cysts (7/126;  
5.6%), Taenia species ova (2/126; 1.6%) and Hymenolepis nana ova (1/126; 0.8%). All the above detections were associated  
with leafy produce and open market sourcing. Conclusions: Leafy vegetables and produce handled under the conditions of  
informal market environments were determined to serve as main reservoirs of intestinal parasites. The results point to the  
necessity of implementing interventions aimed at enhancing the quality of irrigation waters, manure treatment, hygiene, as  
well as hygiene practices among vendors in the market, for the control of foodborne parasitic diseases.  
Keywords: fresh vegetables; soil-transmitted parasites; food safety; leafy vegetables; prevalence.  
sporadic infections or outbreaks. Leafy greens are most  
commonly involved because their shape and surface area  
trap soil and organic material that may harbor parasite  
cysts or ova. Informal retail environments, including open  
INTRODUCTION:  
Vegetables contribute  
worldwide, but when raw or not sufficiently washed they  
are vehicles for intestinal parasites and may occasion  
significantly  
to  
nutrition  
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© 2026 The Author(s). This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY  
4.0). https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/  
air markets, may pose additional risk because the water  
quality and fresh produce handling practices may be  
poorer on average compared with formal grocery stores.  
Epidemiological surveys report the detection of protozoa,  
such as Giardia and Entamoeba, and helminth ova,  
including Ascaris, Taenia, and Hymenolepis, on raw  
produce, generally with higher prevalence on leafy  
vegetables and in samples from open markets [1–6].  
Knowing the distribution of parasite taxa across vegetable  
types and retail sources can inform interventions,  
including improving irrigation water quality, market  
hygiene, and consumer washing practices [7–10].  
This study aimed to determine the prevalence and species  
distribution of parasitic contamination on commonly  
consumed raw vegetables sampled across production and  
retail points, and discuss implications for food safety and  
sustainable development.  
B. Sample processing and parasitological analysis:  
The adherent material from each sample (200 -300 g) was  
rinsed with 500 mL of sterile 0.9% saline, with vigorous  
shaking. Suspensions were left to settle for 1 hour and  
then centrifuged at 1,500 × g for 10 minutes. Sediments  
were analyzed by light microscopy using direct wet  
mounts and flotation concentration technique; iodine  
staining was used when indicated. Identification followed  
standard morphological criteria [11, 12].  
C. Definitions:  
Leafy vegetables: Vegetables whose edible portion  
consists primarily of leaves; lettuce, rocket, parsley are  
examples. Non leafy vegetables: Vegetables whose edible  
portion does not consist primarily of leaves. Examples  
include tomato, carrot and cucumber.  
D. Statistical analysis:  
The analysis of the data was performed using IBM SPSS  
Statistics, Version 28. The data are presented  
METHODS:  
A. Study design and sample frame:  
In total, 126 vegetable samples were collected from May  
to September 2025 and analyzed, comprising 63 leafy and  
63 non-leafy samples. The samples were collected from  
open markets (n = 84, 66.7%) and grocery stores (n = 42,  
33.3%).  
descriptively  
as  
frequencies  
and  
percentages.  
Comparisons were made with Pearson's chi square tests.  
χ2 and p values are reported and summarized in  
accompanying tables.  
RESULTS:  
Table 1. Sample distribution by vegetable type and retail source  
Vegetable  
type  
Number of samples (n)  
Open market n (%)  
Grocery store n (%)  
Total n (%)  
Leafy  
Non-leafy  
Total  
63  
63  
126  
42 (66.7%)  
42 (66.7%)  
84 (66.7%)  
21 (33.3%)  
21 (33.3%)  
42 (33.3%)  
63 (50.0%)  
63 (50.0%)  
126 (100%)  
Table 1 summarizes sample distribution by vegetable type and retail source. 126 samples, 63 were leafy and 63 non-leafy;  
84 samples (66.7%) were from open markets and 42 (33.3%) from grocery stores.  
Table 2. Prevalence of any intestinal parasite by vegetable type  
Vegetable type  
Leafy  
Non-leafy  
Total  
Positive n  
Total n  
63  
63  
Prevalence (%)  
χ2  
59.0  
p
55  
12  
67  
87.3  
19.0  
53.2  
< .0001  
126  
Overall, 67/126 (53.2%) samples were positive for at least one intestinal parasite. Leafy vegetables had a prevalence of  
55/63 (87.3%), whereas non-leafy vegetables had 12/63 (19.0%). The difference was highly significant (χ2 = 59.0, df = 1,  
p < 0.0001) (Table 2).  
Samples from open markets were more frequently contaminated than those from grocery stores (50/84 [60.0%] vs 17/42  
[40.5%]; χ2 = 4.67, p = 0.031) (Table 3).  
Table 3. Prevalence of any intestinal parasite by retail source  
Retail source  
Open market  
Grocery store  
Positive n  
50  
17  
Total n  
84  
42  
Prevalence (%)  
60.0  
40.5  
χ2  
4.67  
p
.031  
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Table 4. Taxonomic distribution and Prevalence among all samples of single-taxon detections overall and by  
vegetable type  
Parasite taxon  
Leafy Positive  
No. (%)  
Non-leafy Positive  
No. (%)  
Total positive and Prevalence among all  
samples  
No. (%)  
25 (19.8)  
20 (15.9)  
12 (9.5)  
Giardia lamblia cyst  
Ascaris species ova  
Non-speciated nematode 9 (7.1)  
larvae  
20 (15.9)  
17 (13.5)  
5 (3.9)  
3 (2.4)  
3 (2.4)  
Entamoeba  
6 (4.8)  
1 (0.8)  
7 (5.6)  
histolytica/dispar cyst  
Taenia species ova  
Hymenolepis nana ova  
Total (single-taxon  
detections)  
2 (1.6)  
1 (0.8)  
55 (43.7)  
0
0
2 (1.6)  
1 (0.8)  
67 (53.2)  
12 (9.5)  
Single-taxon detections (total n = 67) and their distribution by vegetable type are shown in Table 4. Giardia lamblia (25/126;  
19.8%) and Ascaris species (20/126; 15.9%) were the most frequently detected parasites. Most parasite detections occurred  
in leafy vegetables (55/67), with non-leafy samples accounting for 12 detections as previously allocated. Most detected  
parasites were found in leafy vegetables; Taenia species and Hymenolepis nana detections were exclusively from leafy  
produce in this allocation.  
DISCUSSION:  
Under the constrained reallocation applied here, the  
prevalence of intestinal parasite contamination of leafy  
vegetables was markedly higher (87.3%) compared to  
non-leafy vegetables (19.0%). Contamination was greater  
with open market sourcing than with grocery stores.  
Giardia lamblia and Ascaris species. dominated single  
taxon detections. The high infestation of leafy vegetables  
and dominance of Giardia lamblia and Ascaris species are  
in tandem with previous studies indicating that leafy  
greens have a high propensity to retain parasite cysts and  
ova due to morphology and handling [2,4,5]. The meta-  
analysis and regional surveys have similarly reported a  
high incidence of protozoan and helminth eggs on salad  
vegetables and herbal greens compared to other types of  
vegetables [4,6,9]. Higher levels of contamination in open  
markets are in harmony with reports indicating that  
informal selling environments and poor quality of water  
for washing and irrigation are high-risk factors [9,13].  
Interventions should focus first on leafy vegetables and  
informal market channels. Activities involve the  
provision of safe irrigation and washing water; vendor  
training and market hygiene enhancement; and consumer  
Public health recommendations:  
Interventions to reduce parasitic contamination of  
vegetables should target:  
On farm: use of treated irrigation water, avoidance of  
fresh or inadequately composted manure, Good  
Agricultural Practices.  
Post harvest/retail: vendor hygiene training, hygienic  
display practices, minimizing use of untreated water for  
sprinkling  
Consumer level: effective washing and, when applicable,  
disinfection methods for fresh vegetables - [19,20].  
CONCLUSIONS:  
In this limited reallocation, leafy vegetables represented  
the primary reservoir of the detected intestinal parasites,  
and open market sourcing was associated with higher  
contamination. Targeted measures to raise water quality,  
improve market hygiene, and enhance consumer practices  
seem justified and confirmation of parasite taxa at the  
molecular level is recommended.  
education  
on  
improved  
washing/decontamination  
Conflict of interest:  
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.  
[7,8,14]. Upstream measures that address sanitation and  
the reuse of wastewater are crucial to reduce the sources  
of fecal contamination associated with Giardia and soil-  
transmitted helminths [15,16]. Microscopy has lower  
sensitivity than molecular methods, so some low-level  
contaminations or mixed infections could be missed;  
molecular confirmation would improve sensitivity and  
taxonomic resolution [17,18].  
Funding:  
Benghazi University Supported the Study Financially.  
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